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Barrick, K. (2013). A review of prior tests of labeling theory. In D. P. Farrington, & J. Murray (Eds.), Labeling theory: Empirical tests (1st ed., Vol. 18, pp. 89-112). Transaction Publishers.
Ascending to popularity in the 1960s, labeling theory shifted the focus of criminological theory away from the offender. Labeling theorists argued that initial delinquency is normal and occurs for a variety of reasons, but official reactions to it may lead to future offending. For the first time in almost 200 years, the legal system itself became an object of inquiry and researchers began examining the societal reaction to deviance. This represented a marked shift from mainstream sociological thought at the time. Generally, labeling theorists proposed that publicly defining and treating an individual as a deviant may result in exclusions from conventional society, a possible identity change, and an increase in the likelihood of subsequent deviance. Labelists also argued that extralegal characteristics, such as race and class, influence whether official intervention will be imposed.
